Ethical problem in psychological research Essay Example for Free

Ethical problem in psychological research Essay One very common ethical problem in psychological research is participants falling to answer question which they consider to be very personal (Michell, 1999). When conducting psychological research, the researcher is required to interview the respondents on each and every issue he considers suitable. Some questions posed could be very personal. This makes the respondent feel ashamed of answering the questions or he may feel that his personal life is being interfered with. The researcher needs to be very careful when asking the questions. He should understand the temperament of the respondent before asking the questions. People are normally different. There are some peoples who are hot tempered and others who are not. When approaching some one for an interview, as a researcher I should put on a smiling face. Smile is believed to be the shortest distance between peoples even between enemies. I as a researcher I should understand the mood the respondent is in. By understanding the mood of the researcher I would avoid any unnecessary disagreements, which might make me not get the information I am looking for. If the respondent is in a bad mood, I will try to approach him in a decent manner such that I may make his bad mood capsize. In each and every research, choice of language is very vital. Polite language may make a respondent who is not even willing to give answers to change his attitude and provide answers. Immediately I encounter some potential respondents, I should introduce myself. It defeats equity and common sense reasoning, to go straight to interviewing respondents immediately. As a good researcher I should great them. By so doing I will win their confidence and every doubt they could be having about me is dismissed. Dressing is an important aspect as for as research is concerned. Dressing does not only make one decent but also makes one look genuine in what he is doing. The participants may cease to participate in the research. The participants have the following responsibilities: They should explain to you why they wish to leave, so that you can conduct a debriefing. The participants may wish you to complete the research because you would not again ask personal question. When I am faced with an ethical problem there are some steps I would follow so as to solve it. In the very first I would determine whether there is an ethical issue. I would determine if in one way or another I have infringed one’s rights or values. If so I would ask for forgiveness and a lasting solution is reached at. Secondly I would identify the key values and principles involved. I would typically assess the meanings and limitations apparent to these competing values. Thirdly I would rank the values or ethical principles, which in my professional judgment are relevant to the issues. For example if one is doing a research on the, workers who are getting a monthly salary of $200, a question about salary scales have to be asked. It would sound unethical to ask a person how much he gets. Fourthly I would develop an action plan that is consistent with ethical priorities that have been determined, as crucial to the research. In my mind I will have several alternatives to present to the participant incase they react negatively. In the fifth step, I would implement my plan utilizing the most appropriate practice, skills and competencies. I would employ some tactics like sensitive communication, skillful negotiation and cultural competence. Lastly I would reflect on the outcome of this ethical decision making process. An ethical review committee or ethics team is necessary. These committees will provide counseling to those aggrieved.

Chlorhexidine Or Povidone Iodine For Skin Preparation

Chlorhexidine Or Povidone Iodine For Skin Preparation The study was based on critical analysis and review of literature in evaluating the supremacy of skin preparation antiseptic between chlohexidine and povidone-iodine. Chlorhexidine gluconate can reduce the risk for catheter-related bloodstream infection by approximately 50% and should be used in preference as an preoperative antiseptic agent in clean-contaminated surgery in decreasing postoperative SSI. This study demonstrated ChloraPrep solution good value for money as its use for skin antisepsis with its significant per patient cost savings.Finally chlorhexidine gluconate is superior to povidone-iodine for preoperative antisepsis for patients. The study recommends that 2% Chlorhexidine and 70% alcohol be routinely used for the insertion of all indwelling devices such as CVCs, pacing wires, nephrostomies, and for the taking of all blood cultures. INTRODUCTION Surgical-site infection (SSI) increases morbidity, mortality, duration of hospital stay and expense after surgical procedures. The patient is recognized as endogenous reservoir for infections, especially Surgical -site infection; however, this same patient is the main focus for a disease free outcome .Skin preparation is defined as preparing the patients skin as bacteria free as possible through shaving, physical washing and chemical disinfection to reduce the number of microbes in the operative field of operation and thus prevent infection. Skin preparation should be done in a manner that protects and preserves integrity of the skin and prevents skin injury . Patient skin preparation which includes but not limited to , skin condition at surgical site, hair removal, skin preparation antiseptic used and any hypersensitivity reactions should be documented in the patient record according to the AORN Recommended practices for documentation of perioperative nursing care. This documentation helps in continuous quality improvement and follow-up of infection control.   An effective skin-preparation solution is a vital step in preventing the surgical wound seeding with bacteria and ultimately preventing infection. Preoperative skin antisepsis is based on the information that a patients skin is a significant source of microbes. Povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine both destroy bacterial and structural integrity and have been studied more extensively.However the preferred preoperative skin preparation antiseptic agent is still unknown. METHODS This paper will be descriptive in nature as it tries to analyze the above clinical topic. Qualitative analysis provides a qualitative data that can be utilized to compare relatively and analyze the most effective choice of skin preparation antiseptic agent between povidone iodine and chlorhexidine . The source of information is through a review of various literatures and recent articles in relation to the above topic. This report will aim at providing an overview on the key aspects behind the choice of the preferred skin preparation antiseptic between chlorhexidine and povidone iodine based on the data gathered from the rich data base of various studies conducted. The report also aims at identifying drawbacks and shortcomings in various research studies based on the topic. ANALYSIS Perioperative is the term which includes preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phases in the surgical episode of care. As RL Nichols, MD, states, The critical factors in postoperative infection prevention although difficult to be quantified, are the proper technique and sound judgment of the surgeon and surgical team, as well as the general health and disease state of the patient.  This statement summarizes the importance of the perioperative teams relationship with the patient to ensure a disease-free outcome in the postoperative period. Healthcare is a dynamic ever changing science spiraling toward innovative technologies and interventions. The field of antiseptics is progressive with a system approach to gain an even better response in de-colonization of the skin while maintaining skin integrity. Preoperative skin preparation is performed to reduce the risk of postoperative wound infections. An ideal agent would destroy all bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and spores, non-toxic, hypo-allergenic, safe to use ,non-absorbable and have residual antiseptic activity(Hardin and Nichols 1997). The FDA further defines patient preoperative skin preparations as a rapid-acting, broad-spectrum, persistent antiseptic-containing preparation that significantly decreases the microbes on intact skin. An antiseptic should be selected based on certain criteria . Historically, antiseptic agents progressed from the age of alcohol and phenol to hexachlorophene, then povidone iodine followed by chlorhexidine gluconate agents with each agent having a distinct advantage. Now newer formulations offer an prolonged, enhanced and persistent efficacy with focus on patient safety. Product evaluation remains a vital process for selection of an antiseptic agent. Chlorhexidine as the choice of Skin preparation Antiseptic Chlorhexidine is a skin preparation antiseptic agent that has been used worldwide since 1954. It has a great track record of efficacy an safety in providing a disease free environment. Its applications are as diverse as hand wash, skin preparation(preoperative), vaginal preparation, gingivitis treatment and in baby shower to reduce incidence of neonatal sepsis. Chlorhexidine gluconate is a biguanide, water-soluble that binds to the negatively charged cell wall of bacteria, altering osmotic equilibrium of the bacterial cell. It is available commercially at a range of concentrations between 0.5%-4% and in combination with and without isopropyl alcohol . Role of Chlorhexidine in clean-contaminated surgery in relative to Povidone iodine A meta-analysis clinical trials by Noorani et al.,2010 was conducted to determine whether preoperative antisepsis with chlorhexidine or povidone-iodine reduced surgical-site infection in clean-contaminated surgery. The review involved six eligible studies with a database of 5031 patients. The validity of the study was under threat by heterogeneity which was assessed using CochransQ test. Chlorhexidine reduced postoperative surgical-site infection compared to povidone-iodine with a odds ratio of 0 ·68at a 95% confidence interval between 0 ·50 to 0 ·94,P=0.019. This inferred that Chlorhexidine should be used in preference as an preoperative antiseptic agent in clean-contaminated surgery in decreasing Postoperative SSI. The prospective study of about 150 patients undergoing Shoulder surgery by Saltzmann et al., 2009 found ChloraPrep (2% chlorhexidine gluconate and 70% isopropyl alcohol; Enturia, El Paso,Texas) to be more effective than both DuraPrep(0.7% iodophor and 74% isopropyl alcohol;3M Healthcare) and povidone-iodine at eliminating overall bacteria in particular coagulase negative staphylococcus. Propionibacterium acnes was cultured from 15% of the shoulders prepared with povidone-iodine, 12% of those with DuraPrep, and 7% of those prepared with ChloraPrep. The above results are in agreement with other studies by Malbach(1988) and Ostrander et al.,(2005) that have found the combination of chlorhexidine and alcohol to be highly effective . Role of Chlorhexidine in catheter -site care in relative to Povidone iodine Chaiyakunapruk et al .,2002 conducted a meta-analysis comparing chlorhexidine gluconate with povidone-iodine solutions for catheter site care. The above study to be included in the meta-analysis needed, 1) to be a randomized trial 2) to report the incidence of catheter-related bloodstream infection with sufficient data . They performed a meta-analysis of all available published and unpublished studies comparing povidone-iodine solution with chlorhexidine gluconate for care of the vascular catheter-site . The validity of this meta-analysis was threatened by: Publication bias, minimized by exhaustive search for published and unpublished studies in any language. Heterogeneity. The results of this meta -analysis may apply to most hospitalized patients in the United States and similar health care settings.However, the role of chlorhexidine gluconate in preventing catheter-related bloodstream infection cant be addressed in patients who are catheterized for an average of longer than 10 days and the potential additional benefit of chlorhexidine gluconate when an antimicrobial catheter is used (40, 41). The summary risk reduction for catheter-related bloodstream infection in the main analysis and the sensitivity analyses suggests that chlorhexidine gluconate solution reduces the risk for catheter-related bloodstream infection by approximately 50%. The superiority of chlorhexidine gluconate for catheter- site care has several potential explanations: Firstly blood, serum, and other protein-rich substances can deactivate the microbicidal effect of povidone-iodine (9,10) but not chlorhexidine gluconate (11,12). Second, the residual effect of chlorhexidine gluconate, defined as the long-term antimicrobial suppressive activity, is prolonged (at least 6 hours) (13,14), while that of povidone-iodine is minimal (15). The superiority of chlorhexidine gluconate compared with povidone iodine in reducing the coagulase-negative staphylococci colony counts has been earlier shown in a study of disinfection of catheter sites in peritoneal dialsis (16). Because most vascular catheter-related infections are caused by gram-positive cocci, the superior bactericidal effect of chlorhexidine gluconate against these organisms is likely to be clinically important. The use of chlorhexidine gluconate rather than povidone-iodine can reduce the risk for catheter-related bloodstream infection by approximately 50% in hospitalized patients who require short-term catheterization. It is absorbed poorly through clean adult skin which is intact and not damaged. The combination of chlorhexidine an intranasal mupirocin baths has been shown to reduce hospital acquired MRSA infection among ICU patients [8]. is non- flammable demonstrated as good value for money as the use of ChloraPrep for skin antisepsis in has shown reduced infection rates and cost . Chlorhexidine has broad spectrum against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeasts ,anaerobes and aerobes, and some enveloped viruses, including HIV . Chlorhexidine-based antiseptic preparations are more effective than iodophors in reducing the bacterial concentration in the operative field for foot-and-ankle surgery and vaginal hysterectomy. Chlorhexidine gluconate with Isopropyl alcohol Isopropyl alcohol is an extremely effective bactericidal agent that, in concentrations of 70% to 90%, disorganizes cell membrane lipids and denatures cellular proteins resulting in loss of their function. Both ChloraPrep and DuraPrep contain isopropyl alcohol and were more effective than povidone iodine at eliminating bacteria from the axillary region in the prospective study by Saltzmann et al.,2009. Ostrander et al. found fewer bacteria on feet prepared with ChloraPrep (2% chlorhexidine gluconate and 70% isopropyl alcohol; Medi-Flex, Overland Park, Kansas) than on those prepared with DuraPrep (0.7% iodin and 74% isopropyl alcohol; 3M Healthcare, St. Paul, Minnesota) or Techni-Care (3.0% chloroxylenol; Care-Tech Laboratories, St. Louis, Missouri) as the use of a combination of chlorhexidine gluconate and alcohol is perhaps a way to take advantage of their antiseptic properties. The low surface tension of isopropyl alcohol assists in penetration of irregular contours such as the axilla more effectively than other agents (6,7). The Cost factor for chllorhexidine Kelly et al.,2005 identified decreased infection rates with the use of ChloraPrep compared to chlorhexidene 0.5% and povidone iodine 10%. Thus the ChloraPrep solution for antisepsis also resulted in significant per patient cost savings relative to the 10% povidone-iodine(714 £) and 0.5% chlorhexidene solution(254 £).This study demonstrated ChloraPrep value for money as its use for skin antisepsis in a UK ITU population resulted in reduced infection rates and cost . Issues against Chlorhexidine as Skin preparation Antiseptic Based on the meta-analysis by Chaiyakunapruk et al (2002), additional issues should be considered regarding the use of chlorhexidine gluconate for catheter-site care : Hypersensitivity reactions including potential side effects such as increased erythema have been reported with use of central venous catheters and with use of chlorhexidine gluconate for pre-operative showers (17-21). Bacterial resistance is another potential concern, but is negligible despite its widespread use for several decades. The role of chlorhexidine gluconate in preventing catheter-related bloodstream infection in patients who are catheterized for longer duration( The potential additional benefit of chlorhexidine gluconate is unexplained when an antimicrobial catheter is used (22,23). the higher cost of chlorhexidine gluconate. However, although chlorhexidine is approximately twice as expensive as povidone-iodine, the absolute difference is relatively small . Inner ear contact may result in permanent deafness . Direct application of chlorhexidine on neural tissue in a rat specimen caused degeneration of adrenergic nerves .Thus, chlorhexidine for skin preparation before epidural catheters insertion, has been avoided for fear of damage to neural tissue. chlorhexidine products have not been established safe for use in children. It is non- sporicidal Povidone Iodine as the choice of Skin preparation Antiseptic Iodophors are effective against a wide range of bacteria and spores. The mode of action is by penetration of the cell wall and the oxidation and replacement of intracellular molecules with free iodine (Hardin and Nichols 1997). Iodophors are solutions of iodine with a stabilizing agent that releases free iodine (Department of Pharmacological Sciences 1980). Role of Povidone Iodine as Skin preparation Antiseptic There is a significant reduction in the bacterial count in the povidone iodine-ethanol group compared to chlorhexidine gluconate-ethanol group immediately after washing . Equally effective among skin antiseptics used in clean surgery. Most widely used antiseptic agents for surgical scrubbing . Rapidly acting antiseptic agent. Oldest antiseptic agent and hence widely available. Cost effective, cheap and easily available. Issues against Povidone Iodine as Skin preparation Antiseptic Cooper et al., evaluated the toxicity of common wound irrigants with use of a proven cell-viability assay and found povidone-iodine, even to be extremely toxic to fibroblasts and keratinocytes in concentrations of 0.5% (1/20th) of those used in clinical practice. The current article by Fletcher et al., 2007 synthesizes the best available evidence regarding use of preoperative skin preparation of the patient and surgeon in the hope that it will help physicians to reduce the incidence of postoperative wound infection. On an Overview Fletcher et al reviewed the best available literature in an attempt to help orthopedic surgeons to minimize surgical site infections in their patients and made the best possible recommendation below. The iodophors also act against common skin flora; however, their activity is much shorter than that of chlorhexidine gluconate. The effect of povidone-iodine is sustained for a shorter duration in skin in relative to chlorhexidine. The iodophors can be inactivated by blood or serum proteins and should be allowed to dry in order to maximize their antimicrobial action. In vitro studies by Cooper et al , have provided strong evidence that povidone-iodine may impair wound-healing and hence povidone-iodine should not be used for preparation of open wounds or on postoperative dressings A recent meta-analysis showed no difference in efficacy between chlorhexidine and povidone iodine; however, the rarity of infection in such situations probably explains the low power of the included studies. Based on the current literature review by Fletcher et al.,2007 published by The Journal of Bone and Joint surgery strongly suggests that chlorhexidine gluconate is superior to povidone-iodine for preoperative antisepsis for patients. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) The spread of multidrug-resistant organisms particularly methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitals has become a major viewpoint, especially as community-associated MRSA strains have been a major cause of hospital acquired infections. It can be identified by skin culture in 8%-44% of patients admitted to the intensive care unit . A study by University Hospital Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust was conducted to measure the impact of using ChlorPrep on the incidence of MRSA bacteraemia after the insertion of pacing wires,Central venous catheters and nephrostomies. The study found a numerical reduction of MRSA bacteraemia over the one-year study period which remained sustained. CONCLUSION Based on the benefit and small incremental cost, chlorhexidine gluconate should be considered as a replacement for povidone-iodine solution, particularly in patients at high risk for catheter related bloodstream infection. It can reduces the risk for catheter-related bloodstream infection by approximately 50%. Chlorhexidine should be used in preference as an preoperative antiseptic agent in clean-contaminated surgery in decreasing Postoperative SSI. The use of a combination of chlorhexidine gluconate and alcohol is perhaps a way to take advantage of their antiseptic properties..This study demonstrated ChloraPrep solution good value for money as its use for skin antisepsis with its significant per patient cost savings. Although povidone -Iodine is equally effective among skin antiseptics used in clean surgery, the effect of povidone-iodine is sustained for a shorter duration and can be inactivated by blood or serum proteins. Povidone-iodine may impair wound healing and hence avoided in open wound preparation and postoperative surgeries. Finally chlorhexidine gluconate is superior to povidone-iodine for preoperative antisepsis for patients. RECOMMENDATIONS The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that patients have a shower with an antiseptic on the night before surgery and to be applied to the skin at the site of incision. The Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust recommends that ChlorPrep(2% Chlorhexidine and 70% alcohol )be routinely used for all indwelling devices including CVCs, pacing wires, venipuncture and nephrostomies

Comparing Tapdancing of Robinson and Glover :: Bill Bojangles Robinson Savion Glover

Abstract: Comparing the tap dancing of tap stars Bill ‘Bojangles’ Robinson and Savion Glover in the two Hollywood films Stormy Weather (1943) by Andrew Stone and Bamboozled (2000) by Spike Lee, calls for the analysis of each film’s historical context. There are race issues deeply embedded either in the political and social situation at the time the film was made, as is the case with Stormy Weather, or in the narrative of the film, as with Bamboozled. This article pro- poses that the markers for the evolution of tap have been closely aligned with the progress of African Americans in this country. Tap dancing, an art grounded in African American culture, has moved from an upbeat style with its collection of steps that characterize the Jazz Age, such as the Charleston and the Stomp Time Step, to a style that better mirrors rap’s explosive rhythms and tendency towards synchronization. Much like African American music, tap- dancing’s evolution has been closely aligned with social progress and the slow breaking-down of stereotypes developed in the minstrel shows of the late 1800’s. The direct effects of racist stereotyping on tap-dancing are best observed in pre- 1960’s Hollywood films because these films reached a wide, mostly white, audience and were financed and directed by Whites. Tap legend, Bill ‘Bojangles’ Robinson, the star of Stormy Weather (1943), was forced to funnel his talent through a colander of social prejudices set to White Hollywood’s liking, and these social confines are visible in his dancing in this film. It was not until the 1980’s that modern tap emerged in Hollywood as an energetic battle cry from young African American dancers who demanded respect for their art form by refusing to conform to stereotypes. The film Bamboozled (2000), directed by Spike Lee, contrasts modern-day tap to the old-school style. In it, Savion Glover performs both the funky, urban style in street scenes and the smiley, traditional style in modern-day minstrel shows recreated for the film. In order to demonstrate how early conformity with and later break away from stereotypes have fueled the formation of two different generations of tap dancing, I will discuss historical context, and specifically the influence of minstrel shows on Stormy Weather and the 80’s tap revival on Bamboozled, before isolating and analyzing a scene from each film as representative of the two styles of tap-dancing. Stormy Weather, by white director Andrew L. Stone, follows the story of Bill ‘Bojangles’ Robinson’s character (Bill Williamson) as he makes his way to the top in show business.

Panama Canal :: essays research papers fc

PANAMA CANAL The canal is joining the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It runs from Cristobal on lemon bay, a part of the Caribbean sea, to Balboa, on the Gulf of Panama. The canal is slightly more than 64 km long, not including the dredged approach channels at either end. The minimum depth is 12.5 m, and the minimum width is 91.5 m. The construction of the canal ranks as one of the greatest engineering works of all time. In history people had interest in a shorter route from the Atlantic to Pacific. This began with the explorers of Central America early in the 16th century. Hernan Cortez was a Spanish conquer of Mexico who suggested a canal across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Other explorers had favored routes through Nicaragua and Darien. The 1st for a canal through the Panama was started by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Who in 1523 ordered a survey of the isthmus. A working plan for the canal was drawn up as early as 1529, but was shown to the king. In 1534 a Spanish official suggested a canal rout e close to that of the present canal. Later more of the canal plans were suggested but no action was taken upon any of these plans suggested. Later on there is more in the canal. The Spanish government abandoned its interest in the canal but in the early 19th century the books of the German scientist Alexander von Humboldt brang back the interest in the project of the canal, and in 1819 the Spanish government formally authorized the construction of a canal and the creation of a company to build it. Nothing came of this effort, however, and the revolt of the Spanish colonies soon took control of possible canal sites out of Spanish hands . The republics of Central America tried to interest groups in the United States and Europe in building a canal, and it became a subject of perennial debate in the congress of the United States. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 and the rush of would-be miners started the United States interest in digging the canal. Various surveys made betw een 1850 and 1875 indicated that only two routes were practical, the one across Panama and that across Nicaragua. In 1876 an international company was organized. Two years later it obtained a concession from the Colombian government. Panama was then part of Colombia to dig a canal across the isthmus.

One Must Search for Beauty in All Things :: Law College Admissions Essays

One Must Search for Beauty in All Things    I never had the benefit of a spiritual guide. No one ever counseled me to â€Å"search for beauty in all things†. Perhaps it is most beneficial to learn some things through experience.    I ran away from an abusive stepfather and an alcoholic mother when I was thirteen and it was the best decision I ever made. I slept on rooftops and hallways for a year before the state took custody of me and placed me in a group home. Over the next four years I would live in several different homes ranging from a hundred children to less than ten and attend four different high schools. Ultimately though, I finished high school on time and with honors.    Group homes are a strange place to grow up in. There is a structure. Dinner is eaten at a certain time and after eleven o'clock everyone goes upstairs. There are case reviews and mandatory meetings with social workers. We would take turns doing the dishes and preparing meals. Some of the group homes I was in are locked facilities where the children only go out for specific activities. But group homes are also lawless. They are crowded. The majority of the children are on some sort of probation. Violence is rampant. Upstairs there are gang meetings, freehand tattoos, and games of dice. Liquor and hard drugs are common. While we were required to leave in the morning, we were not required to attend school, and as such, most kids did not finish high school.    In many ways, the group homes defined who I am, much the way a person's family and upbringing would define them. The core of my value system was formed during the formative years of fourteen to eighteen. In the group I learned to be discerning without being judgmental. With my friends I was able to go into the neighborhoods where they grew up, neighborhoods I would never have been able to go into otherwise. For a while I lived in a home across from the Robert Taylor Projects, the largest housing projects in the world. In these group homes I met the people who still constitute my family.    For me the group homes were a positive experience, for most they are not. I was fortunate in that I was a little more driven, and maybe a little more intelligent than the average kid in my circumstances. One Must Search for Beauty in All Things :: Law College Admissions Essays One Must Search for Beauty in All Things    I never had the benefit of a spiritual guide. No one ever counseled me to â€Å"search for beauty in all things†. Perhaps it is most beneficial to learn some things through experience.    I ran away from an abusive stepfather and an alcoholic mother when I was thirteen and it was the best decision I ever made. I slept on rooftops and hallways for a year before the state took custody of me and placed me in a group home. Over the next four years I would live in several different homes ranging from a hundred children to less than ten and attend four different high schools. Ultimately though, I finished high school on time and with honors.    Group homes are a strange place to grow up in. There is a structure. Dinner is eaten at a certain time and after eleven o'clock everyone goes upstairs. There are case reviews and mandatory meetings with social workers. We would take turns doing the dishes and preparing meals. Some of the group homes I was in are locked facilities where the children only go out for specific activities. But group homes are also lawless. They are crowded. The majority of the children are on some sort of probation. Violence is rampant. Upstairs there are gang meetings, freehand tattoos, and games of dice. Liquor and hard drugs are common. While we were required to leave in the morning, we were not required to attend school, and as such, most kids did not finish high school.    In many ways, the group homes defined who I am, much the way a person's family and upbringing would define them. The core of my value system was formed during the formative years of fourteen to eighteen. In the group I learned to be discerning without being judgmental. With my friends I was able to go into the neighborhoods where they grew up, neighborhoods I would never have been able to go into otherwise. For a while I lived in a home across from the Robert Taylor Projects, the largest housing projects in the world. In these group homes I met the people who still constitute my family.    For me the group homes were a positive experience, for most they are not. I was fortunate in that I was a little more driven, and maybe a little more intelligent than the average kid in my circumstances.

Marketing Concept †Britvic Essay

Question 1 Identify three key characteristics of the marketing concept. ‘Marketing concept is a philosophy that an organisation should try to provide products and services that satisfy customer’s needs through a coordinated set of activities that also allows the organisation to achieve its goals’ (Dibb, 2012:18). According to marketing concept customers should be at the centre of all the organisations activities. Therefore all departments of organisation are responsible for customer satisfaction and only in that way organisation goals can be achieved. According to Drucker, the aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous, is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service fits him/her and sells itself. Marketing puts customers in central of all business activities, finding out what customers wants, meeting customer needs, supplying them more efficiently and effectively and creating and maintaining profitable relationships. Putting the customer in the middle of all company’s operation allows Britvic to be one of the biggest branded soft drink businesses in UK. Britvic provides fresh, bottled fruit juices with source of Vitamin C. Question 2 Explain Btitvic’s micro and macro environment. Marco forces of marketing environment can affect all organisations operating in market. External marketing environment consists of six categories of forces: political, economical, social, technological, environmental and legal (Dibb, 2012:76). Those forces are uncontrollable and often called PEST or PESTEL. Generally, businesses can prepare for the unexpected by using PESTEL analysis. For example a new legislation of television advertising of food and drink to children has led to the use of non – television campaigns i.e. sponsorship and celebrity endorsement like Wimbledon or British pantomimes play an important role in Britvic’s marketing strategy. Micro environment factors are factors close to a business that have a direct impact on its operations and success. These factors include competitors, customers, distribution channels, suppliers, employees, media, shareholders and the general public. Businesses cannot always control micro environment factors but they should endeavour to manage them along with macro environment. Environmental forces are always dynamic and even though the  future is not very predictable, marketers can estimate what will happen and modify their marketing strategies to the new environmental circumstances. Britvic try to minimize their competitors by supplying their products to 200,000 outlets across UK, possessing the licensed distributor of PepsiCo brands in country, and becoming the number two branded soft drinks business in the UK. Question 3 Explain why market research and the information gathered are important to an organisation like Britvic. According to American Marketing Association ‘marketing research is the function that links consumer, customer, and public to the marketer through information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems, generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions, monitor marketing performance, and improve understanding of marketing as a process’ (www.marketingpower.com). That information must be accurate, reliable, timely, relevant and affordable. There are five basic steps of planning marketing research: locating and defining problems or research issue, designing the research, collecting data, analyzing and interpreting findings, and reporting research findings (Dibb, 2012:264). Marketing research helps businesses like Britvic to identify consumer’s needs, competition, market segments and size of the market. They are also used to determinate company goals, pricing strategy or reduce risk of putting a new product onto the market. Question 4 Explain how Britvic might collect and use market research information. Britvic may collect for its purpose secondary (information compiled inside or outside the company) or primary (information gathered first hand) data, or both. Primary research can be classified as either Quantitative or Qualitative. Quantitative methods are used to discover something that can be measured. They ask questions such as: how many, where, when, what. These methods includes: survey (a method of questioning via post, Internet, telephone or personal interview), observation and experimentation. Qualitative research looking for the answers to the questions why or how people feel which is very difficult, if not impossible, to be found out through a survey or a questionnaire. This data is often called ‘soft’ as it is often difficult to quantify statistically. Methods include in-depth interviews or focus groups. For Britvic purpose, which is to find out about customers’ preferences, thoughts and feelings with regards to the new product (Tango Clear), more sufficient would be a personal interview (quantitative method) and a focus group (qualitative method). Question 5 Explain the process of market segmentation and targeting and benefits of segmentation and targeting to Britvic. Market segmentation is the process of grouping customers into smaller, more similar or homogeneous segments. It is the identification of target customer groups in which customers are formed into groups with similar requirements and buying characteristics (Dibb, 2012:212). Thus market segmentation is the process by which customers with different requirements can be grouped into smaller, more similar segments. One of the basic ways to consider segment is to segment the market by geography, demography, psychographic or socio – cultural factors. Britvic distinguishes between core brands and seed brands. Core brands are the central point of the business and include Pepsi, Robinsons, J2O, 7Up, Fruit Shoot and Tango. Seed brands are those that are believed to have potential for growth in the future and include Gatorade, V Water, Drench. Once segments have been identified, decision about which and how many customer groups to target can be made. There are several options to consider for companies like Britvic. The choice needs to be made between concentration on a single segment with one product and one marketing programme and offering one product and marketing programme to a number of segments (Dibb, 2012:215). By launching new ‘Tango Clear’ Britvic has targeted a slightly older market than traditionally. Business like Britvic by creating separate offers for each segment provides customers a better choice; retain customers who might switch to competing products and brands. Thus using market segmentation Britvic can reach customers more effectively and at a lower cost. List of references: American Marketing Association (2004) Definition of Marketing, available from www.marketingpower.com/aboutama/pages/definitionofmarketing.aspx (last seen on 29th December 2012) Dibb Sally, Simkin Lyndon, Pride William M., Ferrel O.C., (2012) Marketing Concepts and Strategies 6th edn, Hampshire: Cengage Learning EMEA

Doubt Is the Key to Knowledge

Doubt is the key to knowledge† (Persian Proverb). To what extent is this true in two areas of knowledge? Firstly, to understand fully the proverb, definitions should be given. Doubt is the psychological status of being stuck between believing and disbelieving, involving uncertainty and distrust in a particular situation or issue or when there is lack of hard evidence and facts to support the alleged information, action, motive or decision.When you question a notion or you are open to inquisition or reassessment of it, you are having doubt. Only when you can find the justification for your doubt, one that satisfies whatever convinces you to think otherwise, then you will no longer have doubts. To have knowledge is like to have an explanation, understanding or reasoning   to things in the world. Knowledge can be both personal and collective, and not all knowledge is a fact. The big bang theory , the theory of relativity, and the string theory etc. rovides us explanations and re asoning to why the world is the way it is. These theories are what we know but are not necessarily the fact – we do not know if these theories are correct, but still knowing these theories count as our knowledge. Knowledge can come from our personal experience as well. This essay will seek to address the extent to which doubt is manifested as a key to knowledge regarding two areas of knowledge, Science and History.According to Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology, science is the systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts and also the organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation. There is a view that science is seen as provisional, which means that it is subjected to being falsified.In an ever-developing world were new discoveries are made all the time leading to new theories and realizations, older theories are always at the threat of being falsified. Even the new theories, the scientific community will vigorously doubt and criticize any ideas until enough evidence is produced to back them up. It is without ground to say that the basis of scientific growth is on inferred or even imagined hypotheses by scientist in an attempt to create or explain something new or unexplained.Experiments are carried out and positive results can turn these hypotheses into theories and possibly knowledge, of course until they are doubted and contested against by new theories that explores the opposition of the theory in question. Throughout the history of Science, knowledge has been derived from the selfsame processes. In early Mesopotamian study, the Earth was believed to be a flat disk with a dome, until Ferdinand Magellan managed to prove that Earth was spherical after successfully circumnavigating the Earth in the 15th Century.Another example would be of the Italian phy sicist Galileo Galilei who, despite the endless controversy, criticism and denouncing made against him, proved false the long withheld notion of the geocentric view that the Earth was at the center of the Universe. Thus, it is evident that through the use of scientific theories, unless disproved otherwise, knowledge is updated and will remain as such through continual doubt. Hence we can see that as long as there is doubt, new things will be explored and old laws might be disproved of although it is perceived as knowledge to everyone.Although doubt leads to more and more correct viewpoint of an issue, we can never be certain that what we think of as knowledge now is definitely the real truth and can never be disproved. However, with that being said, I believe that doubt and doubt alone cannot be the sole key to gain scientific knowledge, but continual doubt can actually leads to wasting of time and effort and worst is to eliminate the correct fact that is suppose to be true which ca n lead to a regression of knowledge.Firstly, there are many theories in science that remain in the gray area that cannot be logically proven with our current knowledge, like for example the existence of black holes. No scientists have been successful in proving its existence. However, one of the many theories of the black hole might actually be true but as nobody can prove it so, scientists in the field may invest pointless effort into developing new theories instead of directing that effort into proving the theory, which is actually true. Also there are truths that can never be doubted or proven otherwise like the fact that the Earth orbits around the word.Thus, although doubt lends to the progress of science and hence knowledge, it also has limitations which might prove detrimental to the growth of knowledge. The next issue is that of religion. Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. According to New York Times writer Peter Steinfels, published in July 19, 2008, religion is no longer like it was in the past when religious faith was present in everything people do, even for oubters. Nowadays it is almost inevitable that believers must live in a condition of doubt and uncertainty. We often think that there is no room for doubt within faith, that doubt is weakness. Even worse, most conservative faiths regard doubt as something to be battled against because it is dangerous to one's faith. It can lead to heresy, doubting the existence of God, and, according to their belief, perhaps loss of salvation and eternal torture in the fires of Hell.Of course , it had been pointed out by religious thinkers a long time ago that being doubtful about a religion is not the opposite polar of the religion but it is actually the better way of having faith rather than blind belief. Personally, although I am a devout Buddhist, many a time I have found myself doubting my own re ligion. For example, I sometimes question whether there is such thing called karma or does everything just happen by chance and karma is just a way to scare believers into doing good deeds for they fear of having to suffer the consequence afterwards.Ultimately there are people who are kind-hearted and yet still suffer every day. I found my answer not long ago about how it is related to another issue of reincarnation and bringing over karma. I did feel guilty of doubting Buddha and his words but then I learned that he said: Do not accept any of my words on faith, Believing them just because I said them. Be like an analyst buying gold, who cuts, burns, And critically examines his product for authenticity. Only accept what passes the test By proving useful and beneficial in your life.The Buddha (Jnanasara-samuccaya) Doutb, to Buddha is necessary because there is no point in following a religion blindly. According to the Buddha, religion should be left to one's own free choice. Religion is not a law, but a disciplinary code which should be followed with understanding. That’s why the Buddha told his disciples not to blindly follow his teachings but test them and verify them through their own experience like a goldsmith tests the purity of gold. However sometimes fir belief in the spiritual side of things can be necessary or at least comforting.In the book : â€Å"The Age of Doubt: Tracing the Roots of Our Religious Uncertainty†, an example of a 20-year-old boy was given. He is of an agreeable and intellectual appearance,† but he's soon beset with existential and religiously-inflected questions, tied to his faith, that he feels compelled to ask his doctor: â€Å"What am I? What are all these things that are made like me? Why am I? â€Å". â€Å"Why am I? † is perhaps the most remarkable of these questions, with religion offering an answer more confident and comforting than science perhaps ever could.But as his doctor explains, the patien t finds no comfort in theology. He is in one sense suspended between two options, greater faith and firmer uncertainty, yet neither strikes him as possible or appealing. Ultimately religions are spiritual havens that most followers take refuge in; and by constantly doubt its truth, it defeats the purpose of having religions as people are always have this insecurity that what they are doing, adhering to may not do any good to them despite what their religions says.In conclusion, due to the broadness and ambiguity of the knowledge areas of Science and History, it is impossible to accurately evaluate doubt and its ability to present itself as the key to attaining knowledge. Nonetheless, through careful study and research on these various areas of knowledge, this essay presents the stand that doubt, to a large extent, is an indispensable and important factor as the key to knowledge. 1505 words ———————————â€⠀Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- [ 2 ]. Sharpe, Alfred. â€Å"Doubt†. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 5 (New York: Robert Appleton). Retrieved 2008-10-21. 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